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To identify the release of Oracle Database that is currently installed and to see the release levels of other database components you are using, query the data dictionary view PRODUCT_COMPONENT_VERSION.

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About Database Administrator Security and Privileges

To perform the administrative tasks of an Oracle Database DBA, you need specific privileges within the database and possibly in the operating system of the server on which the database runs. Ensure that access to a database administrator’s account is tightly controlled.

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• The Database Administrator’s Operating System Account
  To perform many of the administrative duties for a database, you must be able to execute operating system commands.
• Administrative User Accounts
  Oracle Database provides several administrative user accounts that are associated with administrative privileges.

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Oracle Database is designed as a multiuser database. The database must ensure that multiple users can work concurrently without corrupting one another’s data.

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Transactions

A transaction is a logical, atomic unit of work that contains one or more SQL statements.

An RDBMS must be able to group SQL statements so that they are either all committed, which means they are applied to the database, or all rolled back, which means they are undone.

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An illustration of the need for transactions is a funds transfer from a savings account to a checking account. The transfer consists of the following separate operations:

1. Decrease the savings account.
2. Increase the checking account.
3. Record the transaction in the transaction journal.

Oracle Database guarantees that all three operations succeed or fail as a unit. For example, if a hardware failure prevents a statement in the transaction from executing, then the other statements must be rolled back.

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Transactions are one feature that set Oracle Database apart from a file system. If you perform an atomic operation that updates several files, and if the system fails halfway through, then the files will not be consistent. In contrast, a transaction moves an Oracle database from one consistent state to another. The basic principle of a transaction is “all or nothing”: an atomic operation succeeds or fails as a whole.

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Oracle Database releases are categorized by five numeric segments that indicate release information.

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Oracle Database releases are released in version and version_full releases.

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The version release is designated in the form major release version.0.0.0.0. The major release version is based on the last two digits of the year in which an Oracle Database version is released for the first time. For example, the Oracle Database version released for the first time in the year 2018 has the major release version of 18, and thus its version release is 18.0.0.0.0.

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The version_full release is an update of a version release and is designated based on the major release version, the quarterly release update version (Update), and the quarterly release update revision version (Revision). The version_full releases are categorized by five numeric segments separated by periods as shown in the following example:

First numeral: This numeral indicates the major release version. It also denotes the last two digits of the year in which the Oracle Database version was released for the first time.

Second numeral: This numeral indicates the release update version (Update).

Third numeral: This numeral indicates the release update revision version (Revision).

Fourth numeral: This numeral indicates the increment version. This nomenclature can apply to updates in future releases.

Fifth numeral: This numeral is reserved for future use.

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PL/SQL is a procedural extension to Oracle SQL.

PL/SQL is integrated with Oracle Database, enabling you to use all of the Oracle Database SQL statements, functions, and data types. You can use PL/SQL to control the flow of a SQL program, use variables, and write error-handling procedures.

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A primary benefit of PL/SQL is the ability to store application logic in the database itself. A PL/SQL procedure or function is a schema object that consists of a set of SQL statements and other PL/SQL constructs, grouped together, stored in the database, and run as a unit to solve a specific problem or to perform a set of related tasks. The principal benefit of server-side programming is that built-in functionality can be deployed anywhere.

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Oracle Database can also store program units written in Java. A Java stored procedure is a Java method published to SQL and stored in the database for general use. You can call existing PL/SQL programs from Java and Java programs from PL/SQL.

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See also

• “Server-Side Programming: PL/SQL and Java”
• “Client-Side Database Programming”

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As many as five numbers may be required to fully identify a release.

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Because Oracle Database continues to evolve and can require maintenance, Oracle periodically produces new releases. Not all customers initially subscribe to a new release or require specific maintenance for their existing release. As a result, multiple releases of the product exist simultaneously.

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• About Oracle Database Release Numbers
  Oracle Database releases are categorized by five numeric segments that indicate release information.
• Checking Your Current Release Number
  To identify the release of Oracle Database that is currently installed and to see the release levels of other database components you are using, query the data dictionary view PRODUCT_COMPONENT_VERSION.

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Start SQL*Plus.

1. Do one of the following:
   • Ensure that the PATH environment variable contains ORACLE_HOME/bin.
   • Change directory to ORACLE_HOME/bin.
2. Enter the following command (case-sensitive on UNIX and Linux): sqlplus /nolog

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Step 4: Submit the SQL*Plus CONNECT Command

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Submit the SQL*Plus CONNECT command to initially connect to the Oracle database instance or at any time to reconnect as a different user.

• In SQL*Plus, submit the CONNECT command.

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A general requirement for a DBMS is to adhere to accepted industry standards for a data access language.

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

SQL is a set-based declarative language that provides an interface to an RDBMS such as Oracle Database.

Procedural languages such as C describe how things should be done. SQL is nonprocedural and describes what should be done.

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SQL is the ANSI standard language for relational databases. All operations on the data in an Oracle database are performed using SQL statements. For example, you use SQL to create tables and query and modify data in tables.

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A SQL statement can be thought of as a very simple, but powerful, computer program or instruction. Users specify the result that they want (for example, the names of employees), not how to derive it. A SQL statement is a string of SQL text such as the following:

CopySELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees;

SQL statements enable you to perform the following tasks:

• Query data
• Insert, update, and delete rows in a table
• Create, replace, alter, and drop objects
• Control access to the database and its objects
• Guarantee database consistency and integrity

SQL unifies the preceding tasks in one consistent language. Oracle SQL is an implementation of the ANSI standard. Oracle SQL supports numerous features that extend beyond standard SQL.

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Oracle Database includes the following components: the Oracle Database instance, which is a collection of processes and memory, and a set of disk files that contain user data and system data.

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Each instance has an instance ID, also known as a system ID (SID). Because there can be multiple Oracle instances on a host computer, each with its own set of data files, you must identify the instance to which you want to connect. For a local connection, you identify the instance by setting operating system environment variables. For a remote connection, you identify the instance by specifying a network address and a database service name. For both local and remote connections, you must set environment variables to help the operating system find the SQL*Plus executable and to provide the executable with a path to its support files and scripts.

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Step 1: Open a Command Window

Take the necessary action on your platform to open a window into which you can enter operating system commands.

• Open a command window.

1.3.3.3 Step 2: Set Operating System Environment Variables

Depending on your platform, you may have to set environment variables before starting SQL*Plus, or at least verify that they are set properly.

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For example, on most platforms, ORACLE_SID and ORACLE_HOME must be set. In addition, it is advisable to set the PATH environment variable to include the ORACLE_HOME/bin directory. Some platforms may require additional environment variables:

• On the UNIX and Linux platforms, set environment variables by entering operating system commands.
• On the Windows platform, Oracle Universal Installer (OUI) automatically assigns values to ORACLE_HOME and ORACLE_SID in the Windows registry.

If you did not create a database upon installation, OUI does not set ORACLE_SID in the registry; after you create your database at a later time, you must set the ORACLE_SID environment variable from a command window.

UNIX and Linux installations come with two scripts, oraenv and coraenv, that you can use to easily set environment variables. For more information, see Administrator’s Reference for UNIX Systems.

For all platforms, when switching between instances with different Oracle homes, you must change the ORACLE_HOME environment variable. If multiple instances share the same Oracle home, you must change only ORACLE_SID when switching instances.

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An index is an optional data structure that you can create on one or more columns of a table. Indexes can increase the performance of data retrieval.

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When processing a request, the database can use available indexes to locate the requested rows efficiently. Indexes are useful when applications often query a specific row or range of rows.

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Indexes are logically and physically independent of the data. Thus, you can drop and create indexes with no effect on the tables or other indexes. All applications continue to function after you drop an index.

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See also

“Introduction to Indexes” to learn about the purpose and types of indexes

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A table describes an entity such as employees.

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You define a table with a table name, such as employees, and set of columns. In general, you give each column a name, a data type, and a width when you create the table.

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A table is a set of rows. A column identifies an attribute of the entity described by the table, whereas a row identifies an instance of the entity. For example, attributes of the employees entity correspond to columns for employee ID and last name. A row identifies a specific employee.

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You can optionally specify a rule, called an integrity constraint, for a column. One example is a NOT NULL integrity constraint. This constraint forces the column to contain a value in every row.

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